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AWS Cloud Security Best Practices: Complete Implementation Guide for DevSecOps Teams

Posted Aug 14, 2025
By SOC Admin
16 min read

With 94% of enterprises using cloud services and AWS commanding 32% of the global cloud market, securing AWS infrastructure has become paramount for organizations worldwide. Recent studies show that 65% of security breaches in cloud environments result from misconfigurations, making comprehensive AWS security implementation a critical business imperative.

This guide provides DevSecOps teams with actionable strategies for implementing robust AWS security practices, combining infrastructure security, automation, and compliance frameworks into a unified approach.

Executive Summary: Modern AWS Security Landscape

Current Security Challenges

  • Misconfiguration Risk: 65% of cloud breaches stem from configuration errors
  • Identity Management Complexity: Average enterprise manages 2,000+ IAM entities
  • Compliance Requirements: 73% of organizations face multiple regulatory frameworks
  • Automation Gap: Only 32% of security processes are fully automated

Strategic Security Framework

Our implementation approach addresses five critical pillars:

  1. Identity and Access Management (Zero Trust)
  2. Data Protection (Encryption and Classification)
  3. Network Security (Defense in Depth)
  4. Monitoring and Incident Response (Automated Detection)
  5. Compliance and Governance (Policy as Code)

1. Identity and Access Management: Zero Trust Implementation

AWS IAM Zero Trust Architecture

Identity and Access Management forms the foundation of AWS security. Implementing zero trust principles requires comprehensive identity verification and least-privilege access controls.

Core Zero Trust Principles

  • Never Trust, Always Verify: Every access request requires authentication
  • Least Privilege Access: Minimal necessary permissions only
  • Assume Breach: Design for compromise scenarios
  • Contextual Access: Location, device, and behavior-based decisions

IAM Policy Framework Implementation

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{
  "Version": "2012-10-17",
  "Statement": [
    {
      "Sid": "ZeroTrustBasePolicy",
      "Effect": "Allow",
      "Action": [
        "sts:GetCallerIdentity",
        "iam:GetUser",
        "iam:ListAccessKeys"
      ],
      "Resource": "*",
      "Condition": {
        "Bool": {
          "aws:MultiFactorAuthPresent": "true"
        },
        "DateGreaterThan": {
          "aws:CurrentTime": "2024-01-01T00:00:00Z"
        }
      }
    }
  ]
}

Advanced IAM Configuration

Permission Boundaries Implementation:

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# Create permission boundary for developers
aws iam create-policy --policy-name DevSecOpsBoundary \
  --policy-document file://devsecops-boundary-policy.json

# Apply boundary to role
aws iam put-role-permissions-boundary \
  --role-name DevSecOpsRole \
  --permissions-boundary arn:aws:iam::ACCOUNT:policy/DevSecOpsBoundary

Cross-Account Access Controls:

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{
  "Version": "2012-10-17",
  "Statement": [
    {
      "Sid": "CrossAccountAssumeRole",
      "Effect": "Allow",
      "Principal": {
        "AWS": "arn:aws:iam::TRUSTED-ACCOUNT:root"
      },
      "Action": "sts:AssumeRole",
      "Condition": {
        "StringEquals": {
          "sts:ExternalId": "UniqueExternalIdentifier"
        },
        "IpAddress": {
          "aws:SourceIp": ["203.0.113.0/24", "198.51.100.0/24"]
        }
      }
    }
  ]
}

AWS SSO Integration Strategy

SAML 2.0 Configuration:

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# Configure AWS SSO with identity provider
aws sso-admin create-instance-access-control-attribute-configuration \
  --instance-arn arn:aws:sso:::instance/ssoins-example \
  --access-control-attributes \
  Key=Department,Value={Source="{path:enterprise.department}"}

Automated User Provisioning:

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import boto3
import json

def provision_sso_user(user_data):
    sso_client = boto3.client('identitystore')
    
    response = sso_client.create_user(
        IdentityStoreId='d-1234567890',
        UserName=user_data['username'],
        Name={
            'GivenName': user_data['first_name'],
            'FamilyName': user_data['last_name']
        },
        DisplayName=f"{user_data['first_name']} {user_data['last_name']}",
        Emails=[
            {
                'Value': user_data['email'],
                'Type': 'Work',
                'Primary': True
            }
        ]
    )
    
    return response['UserId']

Multi-Factor Authentication Enforcement

Organization-Wide MFA Policy:

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{
  "Version": "2012-10-17",
  "Statement": [
    {
      "Sid": "DenyAllExceptUsersWithMFA",
      "Effect": "Deny",
      "NotAction": [
        "iam:CreateVirtualMFADevice",
        "iam:EnableMFADevice",
        "iam:GetUser",
        "iam:ListMFADevices",
        "iam:ListVirtualMFADevices",
        "iam:ResyncMFADevice",
        "sts:GetSessionToken"
      ],
      "Resource": "*",
      "Condition": {
        "BoolIfExists": {
          "aws:MultiFactorAuthPresent": "false"
        }
      }
    }
  ]
}

2. Data Protection: Comprehensive Encryption Strategy

AWS Key Management Service (KMS) Implementation

Data protection requires multi-layered encryption strategies covering data at rest, in transit, and in use.

Customer-Managed Keys (CMK) Configuration

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# Create customer-managed KMS key
aws kms create-key \
  --policy file://kms-key-policy.json \
  --description "DevSecOps encryption key for production workloads" \
  --key-usage ENCRYPT_DECRYPT \
  --key-spec SYMMETRIC_DEFAULT

# Create key alias
aws kms create-alias \
  --alias-name alias/devsecops-prod \
  --target-key-id arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:key/key-id

KMS Key Policy Example:

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{
  "Version": "2012-10-17",
  "Statement": [
    {
      "Sid": "EnableRootPermissions",
      "Effect": "Allow",
      "Principal": {
        "AWS": "arn:aws:iam::123456789012:root"
      },
      "Action": "kms:*",
      "Resource": "*"
    },
    {
      "Sid": "AllowServiceUsage",
      "Effect": "Allow",
      "Principal": {
        "Service": [
          "s3.amazonaws.com",
          "rds.amazonaws.com",
          "lambda.amazonaws.com"
        ]
      },
      "Action": [
        "kms:Decrypt",
        "kms:GenerateDataKey"
      ],
      "Resource": "*"
    }
  ]
}

S3 Encryption Implementation

Server-Side Encryption Configuration:

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# Enable default encryption for S3 bucket
aws s3api put-bucket-encryption \
  --bucket secure-data-bucket \
  --server-side-encryption-configuration '{
    "Rules": [
      {
        "ApplyServerSideEncryptionByDefault": {
          "SSEAlgorithm": "aws:kms",
          "KMSMasterKeyID": "arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:alias/devsecops-prod"
        },
        "BucketKeyEnabled": true
      }
    ]
  }'

Client-Side Encryption Implementation:

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import boto3
from botocore.client import Config

def upload_encrypted_object(bucket_name, object_key, data):
    s3_client = boto3.client(
        's3',
        config=Config(signature_version='s3v4')
    )
    
    # Upload with server-side encryption
    s3_client.put_object(
        Bucket=bucket_name,
        Key=object_key,
        Body=data,
        ServerSideEncryption='aws:kms',
        SSEKMSKeyId='arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:alias/devsecops-prod',
        Metadata={
            'data-classification': 'confidential',
            'encryption-version': '2.0'
        }
    )

Database Encryption Strategy

RDS Encryption Configuration:

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# Create encrypted RDS instance
aws rds create-db-instance \
  --db-instance-identifier secure-database \
  --db-instance-class db.t3.micro \
  --engine mysql \
  --master-username admin \
  --master-user-password SecurePassword123! \
  --allocated-storage 20 \
  --storage-encrypted \
  --kms-key-id arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:alias/devsecops-prod \
  --vpc-security-group-ids sg-12345678 \
  --db-subnet-group-name secure-subnet-group

DynamoDB Encryption at Rest:

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import boto3

def create_encrypted_dynamodb_table():
    dynamodb = boto3.client('dynamodb')
    
    response = dynamodb.create_table(
        TableName='SecureUserData',
        KeySchema=[
            {
                'AttributeName': 'UserId',
                'KeyType': 'HASH'
            }
        ],
        AttributeDefinitions=[
            {
                'AttributeName': 'UserId',
                'AttributeType': 'S'
            }
        ],
        BillingMode='PAY_PER_REQUEST',
        SSESpecification={
            'Enabled': True,
            'SSEType': 'KMS',
            'KMSMasterKeyId': 'arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:alias/devsecops-prod'
        },
        PointInTimeRecoverySpecification={
            'PointInTimeRecoveryEnabled': True
        }
    )
    
    return response

3. Network Security: Defense in Depth

VPC Security Architecture

Network security requires layered defense mechanisms, from perimeter security to microsegmentation.

Secure VPC Configuration

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# Create VPC with dedicated tenancy for high-security workloads
aws ec2 create-vpc \
  --cidr-block 10.0.0.0/16 \
  --instance-tenancy dedicated \
  --tag-specifications 'ResourceType=vpc,Tags=[{Key=Name,Value=SecureVPC},{Key=Environment,Value=Production}]'

# Create private subnets
aws ec2 create-subnet \
  --vpc-id vpc-12345678 \
  --cidr-block 10.0.1.0/24 \
  --availability-zone us-west-2a \
  --tag-specifications 'ResourceType=subnet,Tags=[{Key=Name,Value=PrivateSubnet-AZ1},{Key=Tier,Value=Database}]'

Network ACL Security Rules:

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# Create restrictive Network ACL
aws ec2 create-network-acl \
  --vpc-id vpc-12345678 \
  --tag-specifications 'ResourceType=network-acl,Tags=[{Key=Name,Value=SecureNetworkACL}]'

# Add inbound rules
aws ec2 create-network-acl-entry \
  --network-acl-id acl-12345678 \
  --rule-number 100 \
  --protocol tcp \
  --rule-action allow \
  --port-range From=443,To=443 \
  --cidr-block 10.0.0.0/16

Security Group Best Practices

Least-Privilege Security Groups:

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import boto3

def create_secure_security_group(vpc_id, group_name):
    ec2 = boto3.client('ec2')
    
    # Create security group
    sg_response = ec2.create_security_group(
        GroupName=group_name,
        Description=f'Secure {group_name} security group',
        VpcId=vpc_id
    )
    
    security_group_id = sg_response['GroupId']
    
    # Add specific inbound rules
    ec2.authorize_security_group_ingress(
        GroupId=security_group_id,
        IpPermissions=[
            {
                'IpProtocol': 'tcp',
                'FromPort': 443,
                'ToPort': 443,
                'IpRanges': [{'CidrIp': '10.0.0.0/16', 'Description': 'Internal HTTPS traffic'}]
            },
            {
                'IpProtocol': 'tcp',
                'FromPort': 22,
                'ToPort': 22,
                'UserIdGroupPairs': [
                    {
                        'GroupId': 'sg-bastion-host',
                        'Description': 'SSH from bastion host only'
                    }
                ]
            }
        ]
    )
    
    return security_group_id

AWS WAF Implementation

Web Application Firewall Configuration:

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import boto3
import json

def create_waf_web_acl():
    wafv2 = boto3.client('wafv2')
    
    web_acl = wafv2.create_web_acl(
        Scope='REGIONAL',
        Name='DevSecOpsWebACL',
        DefaultAction={'Allow': {}},
        Rules=[
            {
                'Name': 'AWSManagedRulesCommonRuleSet',
                'Priority': 1,
                'OverrideAction': {'None': {}},
                'Statement': {
                    'ManagedRuleGroupStatement': {
                        'VendorName': 'AWS',
                        'Name': 'AWSManagedRulesCommonRuleSet'
                    }
                },
                'VisibilityConfig': {
                    'SampledRequestsEnabled': True,
                    'CloudWatchMetricsEnabled': True,
                    'MetricName': 'CommonRuleSetMetric'
                }
            },
            {
                'Name': 'RateLimitRule',
                'Priority': 2,
                'Action': {'Block': {}},
                'Statement': {
                    'RateBasedStatement': {
                        'Limit': 2000,
                        'AggregateKeyType': 'IP'
                    }
                },
                'VisibilityConfig': {
                    'SampledRequestsEnabled': True,
                    'CloudWatchMetricsEnabled': True,
                    'MetricName': 'RateLimitMetric'
                }
            }
        ],
        VisibilityConfig={
            'SampledRequestsEnabled': True,
            'CloudWatchMetricsEnabled': True,
            'MetricName': 'DevSecOpsWebACL'
        }
    )
    
    return web_acl['Summary']['ARN']

4. Monitoring and Incident Response: Automated Detection

CloudTrail Advanced Configuration

Comprehensive logging and monitoring enable rapid threat detection and incident response.

Multi-Region CloudTrail Setup

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# Create CloudTrail with advanced features
aws cloudtrail create-trail \
  --name DevSecOpsCloudTrail \
  --s3-bucket-name secure-cloudtrail-logs \
  --include-global-service-events \
  --is-multi-region-trail \
  --enable-log-file-validation \
  --event-selectors '[
    {
      "ReadWriteType": "All",
      "IncludeManagementEvents": true,
      "DataResources": [
        {
          "Type": "AWS::S3::Object",
          "Values": ["arn:aws:s3:::sensitive-data-bucket/*"]
        }
      ]
    }
  ]'

# Enable CloudTrail insights
aws cloudtrail put-insight-selectors \
  --trail-name DevSecOpsCloudTrail \
  --insight-selectors '[
    {
      "InsightType": "ApiCallRateInsight"
    }
  ]'

GuardDuty Integration and Automation

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import boto3
import json

def setup_guardduty_automation():
    guardduty = boto3.client('guardduty')
    lambda_client = boto3.client('lambda')
    
    # Enable GuardDuty
    detector_response = guardduty.create_detector(
        Enable=True,
        FindingPublishingFrequency='FIFTEEN_MINUTES'
    )
    
    detector_id = detector_response['DetectorId']
    
    # Create threat intel set
    guardduty.create_threat_intel_set(
        DetectorId=detector_id,
        Name='CustomThreatIntelSet',
        Format='TXT',
        Location='s3://threat-intel-bucket/indicators.txt',
        Activate=True
    )
    
    return detector_id

def create_guardduty_response_lambda():
    lambda_code = '''
import json
import boto3

def lambda_handler(event, context):
    # Parse GuardDuty finding
    finding = event['detail']
    severity = finding['severity']
    
    if severity >= 7.0:  # High severity findings
        # Trigger automated response
        response_actions = {
            'isolate_instance': isolate_compromised_instance,
            'block_ip': block_malicious_ip,
            'notify_security': send_security_alert
        }
        
        for action_name, action_func in response_actions.items():
            try:
                action_func(finding)
            except Exception as e:
                print(f"Failed to execute {action_name}: {e}")
    
    return {
        'statusCode': 200,
        'body': json.dumps('GuardDuty finding processed')
    }

def isolate_compromised_instance(finding):
    # Implementation for instance isolation
    pass

def block_malicious_ip(finding):
    # Implementation for IP blocking
    pass

def send_security_alert(finding):
    # Implementation for security team notification
    pass
'''
    
    return lambda_code

Security Lake Implementation

Centralized Security Data Lake:

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# Enable Security Lake
aws securitylake create-data-lake \
  --regions us-west-2 \
  --configurations '[
    {
      "Region": "us-west-2",
      "EncryptionConfiguration": {
        "KmsKeyId": "arn:aws:kms:us-west-2:123456789012:alias/devsecops-prod"
      },
      "ReplicationConfiguration": {
        "Regions": ["us-east-1"],
        "RoleArn": "arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/SecurityLakeReplicationRole"
      }
    }
  ]'

Custom Source Integration:

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import boto3
import json

def create_custom_security_source():
    security_lake = boto3.client('securitylake')
    
    response = security_lake.create_custom_log_source(
        SourceName='DevSecOpsPipelineEvents',
        SourceVersion='1.0',
        EventClasses=[
            'AUTHENTICATION',
            'AUTHORIZATION', 
            'NETWORK_ACTIVITY'
        ],
        Configuration={
            'CrawlerConfiguration': {
                'RoleArn': 'arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/SecurityLakeCrawlerRole'
            },
            'ProviderIdentity': {
                'Principal': 'arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/DevSecOpsRole'
            }
        }
    )
    
    return response

5. Compliance and Governance: Policy as Code

AWS Config Implementation

Continuous compliance monitoring through automated configuration assessment.

Config Rules Deployment

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import boto3

def deploy_compliance_config_rules():
    config_client = boto3.client('config')
    
    # CIS AWS Foundations Benchmark rules
    compliance_rules = [
        {
            'ConfigRuleName': 'root-access-key-check',
            'Source': {
                'Owner': 'AWS',
                'SourceIdentifier': 'ROOT_ACCESS_KEY_CHECK'
            }
        },
        {
            'ConfigRuleName': 'mfa-enabled-for-iam-console-access',
            'Source': {
                'Owner': 'AWS',
                'SourceIdentifier': 'MFA_ENABLED_FOR_IAM_CONSOLE_ACCESS'
            }
        },
        {
            'ConfigRuleName': 's3-bucket-public-access-prohibited',
            'Source': {
                'Owner': 'AWS',
                'SourceIdentifier': 'S3_BUCKET_PUBLIC_ACCESS_PROHIBITED'
            }
        },
        {
            'ConfigRuleName': 'encrypted-volumes',
            'Source': {
                'Owner': 'AWS',
                'SourceIdentifier': 'ENCRYPTED_VOLUMES'
            }
        }
    ]
    
    for rule in compliance_rules:
        config_client.put_config_rule(ConfigRule=rule)
        print(f"Deployed rule: {rule['ConfigRuleName']}")

Custom Compliance Rules

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def create_custom_compliance_rule():
    lambda_code = '''
import json
import boto3

def lambda_handler(event, context):
    # Get the configurationItem from the invokingEvent
    configuration_item = event['configurationItem']
    
    # Check if resource is compliant
    compliance_status = evaluate_compliance(configuration_item)
    
    # Return compliance evaluation
    return {
        'ComplianceResourceType': configuration_item['resourceType'],
        'ComplianceResourceId': configuration_item['resourceId'],
        'ComplianceType': compliance_status,
        'Annotation': 'Custom security policy evaluation',
        'OrderingTimestamp': configuration_item['configurationItemCaptureTime']
    }

def evaluate_compliance(configuration_item):
    # Custom compliance logic
    if configuration_item['resourceType'] == 'AWS::S3::Bucket':
        # Check if S3 bucket has encryption enabled
        bucket_encryption = configuration_item.get('supplementaryConfiguration', {}).get('BucketEncryption')
        return 'COMPLIANT' if bucket_encryption else 'NON_COMPLIANT'
    
    return 'NOT_APPLICABLE'
'''
    
    return lambda_code

Service Control Policies (SCPs)

Organization-Level Security Policies:

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{
  "Version": "2012-10-17",
  "Statement": [
    {
      "Sid": "PreventRootUserUsage",
      "Effect": "Deny",
      "Action": "*",
      "Resource": "*",
      "Condition": {
        "StringEquals": {
          "aws:RequestedRegion": [
            "us-east-1",
            "us-west-2"
          ]
        },
        "Bool": {
          "aws:ViaAWSService": "false"
        }
      },
      "Principal": {
        "AWS": "*"
      }
    },
    {
      "Sid": "RequireEncryptionInTransit",
      "Effect": "Deny",
      "Action": [
        "s3:*"
      ],
      "Resource": "*",
      "Condition": {
        "Bool": {
          "aws:SecureTransport": "false"
        }
      }
    }
  ]
}

Implementation Roadmap: 90-Day Security Transformation

Phase 1: Foundation (Days 1-30)

  • Identity Infrastructure: Deploy AWS SSO and MFA enforcement
  • Encryption Strategy: Implement KMS and data-at-rest encryption
  • Network Segmentation: Configure VPC, subnets, and security groups
  • Monitoring Baseline: Enable CloudTrail and GuardDuty
  • Compliance Framework: Deploy AWS Config with CIS benchmarks

Phase 2: Automation (Days 31-60)

  • Incident Response: Implement automated threat response
  • Security Lake: Deploy centralized security data analytics
  • Policy Enforcement: Configure Service Control Policies
  • Vulnerability Management: Integrate Inspector and Systems Manager
  • Access Reviews: Implement automated IAM access analytics

Phase 3: Optimization (Days 61-90)

  • Advanced Monitoring: Deploy custom security metrics and dashboards
  • Threat Intelligence: Integrate external threat feeds
  • Security Testing: Implement automated security testing in CI/CD
  • Disaster Recovery: Test and validate security incident procedures
  • Performance Tuning: Optimize security controls for performance

Success Metrics and KPIs

Security Metrics:

  • Mean Time to Detection (MTTD): < 15 minutes
  • Mean Time to Response (MTTR): < 1 hour
  • False Positive Rate: < 5%
  • Compliance Score: > 95%

Operational Metrics:

  • Automated Response Rate: > 80%
  • Security Training Completion: 100%
  • Vulnerability Patch Time: < 7 days
  • Access Review Completion: Monthly

Advanced Security Patterns

Zero Trust Network Architecture

Microsegmentation Strategy:

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def implement_microsegmentation():
    """
    Implement network microsegmentation using security groups
    and NACLs for zero trust architecture
    """
    ec2 = boto3.client('ec2')
    
    # Application tier security group
    app_sg = ec2.create_security_group(
        GroupName='app-tier-sg',
        Description='Application tier microsegment',
        VpcId='vpc-12345678'
    )
    
    # Database tier security group  
    db_sg = ec2.create_security_group(
        GroupName='db-tier-sg',
        Description='Database tier microsegment',
        VpcId='vpc-12345678'
    )
    
    # Allow app tier to database tier only
    ec2.authorize_security_group_ingress(
        GroupId=db_sg['GroupId'],
        IpPermissions=[
            {
                'IpProtocol': 'tcp',
                'FromPort': 3306,
                'ToPort': 3306,
                'UserIdGroupPairs': [
                    {
                        'GroupId': app_sg['GroupId'],
                        'Description': 'MySQL access from app tier'
                    }
                ]
            }
        ]
    )

Container Security Implementation

EKS Security Configuration:

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apiVersion: v1
kind: Pod
metadata:
  name: secure-app
  annotations:
    seccomp.security.alpha.kubernetes.io/pod: runtime/default
spec:
  securityContext:
    runAsNonRoot: true
    runAsUser: 10001
    fsGroup: 10001
  containers:
  - name: app
    image: secure-app:latest
    securityContext:
      allowPrivilegeEscalation: false
      readOnlyRootFilesystem: true
      capabilities:
        drop:
        - ALL
        add:
        - NET_BIND_SERVICE
    resources:
      limits:
        memory: "256Mi"
        cpu: "200m"
      requests:
        memory: "128Mi"
        cpu: "100m"

Fargate Security Profile:

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def create_secure_fargate_task():
    ecs = boto3.client('ecs')
    
    task_definition = ecs.register_task_definition(
        family='secure-app-task',
        networkMode='awsvpc',
        requiresCompatibilities=['FARGATE'],
        cpu='256',
        memory='512',
        executionRoleArn='arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/ecsTaskExecutionRole',
        taskRoleArn='arn:aws:iam::123456789012:role/ecsTaskRole',
        containerDefinitions=[
            {
                'name': 'secure-app',
                'image': 'secure-app:latest',
                'essential': True,
                'logConfiguration': {
                    'logDriver': 'awslogs',
                    'options': {
                        'awslogs-group': '/ecs/secure-app',
                        'awslogs-region': 'us-west-2',
                        'awslogs-stream-prefix': 'ecs'
                    }
                },
                'secrets': [
                    {
                        'name': 'DB_PASSWORD',
                        'valueFrom': 'arn:aws:secretsmanager:us-west-2:123456789012:secret:db-password'
                    }
                ]
            }
        ]
    )
    
    return task_definition

AWS Security Documentation

Compliance and Governance Resources

DevSecOps Integration Guides

Advanced Security Tools

Conclusion

Implementing comprehensive AWS security requires a systematic approach combining identity management, data protection, network security, monitoring, and compliance. This guide provides the foundation for building a robust security posture that scales with your organization’s growth.

The key to successful AWS security implementation lies in automation, continuous monitoring, and regular assessment of your security controls. By following the implementation roadmap and leveraging AWS native security services, organizations can achieve enterprise-grade security while maintaining operational efficiency.

For ongoing security optimization, regularly review AWS security announcements, participate in the AWS security community, and conduct periodic security assessments to ensure your implementation remains current with evolving threats and best practices.

AWS, Security, DevSecOps
aws-security cloud-security devsecops aws-iam aws-kms aws-vpc security-automation compliance
This post is licensed under CC BY 4.0 by the author.
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